Lifelong Learning Project - School Inclusion - Preventing Early School Leaving

It is important to talk about absenteeism in class because by doing this the teacher can raise awareness amongst the pupils to the problem, can show alternative ways of acting and can respond to truancy as it occurs. The classroom teacher is the first and main school contact person, someone who is most interested in the pupils and their problems and who can also explain the school specific rules on absenteeism. The following links contain worksheets that can be used in teaching units on truancy. They are proposals for you to create your own worksheets, which are adequate for yours target group.
2_1_1_truants.pdf
2_1_1_madness.pdf
2_1_1_Gespräche.pdf
2_1_1_Angst.pdf
2_1_1_schwänzen.pdf
2_1_1_innoschool.pdf

You probably already know how you as a teacher can establish a good atmosphere in class e.g. through your attitude towards the pupils which should be open, friendly and encouraging and by creating lessons aimed at meeting the pupil’s individual needs and learning styles. In the following, those areas which are most important for pupils at risk of become drop-outs (as detailed in Module 1) will be highlighted. Very often these pupils have many problems outside school e.g. they may have to take over responsibility for younger siblings because of family problems. To succeed in motivating them in the classroom it is important to show them your appreciation, assigning them responsibility and letting them take part in deciding about learning matters (where possible), you signal to these pupils “I believe in you”, “I appreciate you”, “I am taking you seriously”. Walker (1995) has compiled a number of behaviour patterns which can be used to re-enforce this message. Another important approach in this context is the client-centred approach by Rogers (1993). It’s basic elements are empathy and appreciation (see also chapter 3.2, active listening). Because pupils at risk often have deficits regarding soft-skills such as communication or conflict resolution (see also chapter 4.2., conflict management), it is particularly important that you support the integration of these pupils socially. You find some suggestions to promote group dynamics in work done by Klippert (1998). In his book he details a number of methods for communication training in class.

Walker (1995) published a useful book called “Non-violent association with conflicts in the secondary school”. There you will find exercises and games about:

• getting to know each other;
• advancement of self-esteem;
• communication;
• cooperation;
• gender interaction.

As a teacher you must always be a good role model and lead by example.

When pupils go to places where they have fun outside of school this can make being out of school more rewarding than being in school. To counteract this it is very important that your lessons are well planned, interesting and designed to link to pupils´ everyday experiences outside school. Pupils at risk can be bored quickly and lose motivation if given teacher-centred teaching. If lessons are to generate interest and motivation it is important to teach lessons which are delivered using the various methods that are most attractive and appropriate for the individual children (see also Module 3).

Particularly important in your efforts to be a good teacher is the belief that ‘Every Child Matters’ (see the UK National Report; see also the German brochure “Concept against school absenteeism. Every pupil counts” by the Rat für Kriminalitätsverhütung in Schleswig-Holstein). Bearing this in mind take a self-critical look at your teaching style and ask yourself questions such as: “How satisfied am I with the standard of my teaching?”, “What would I like to change?”, “What is going well, what isn’t?” Identify the resources you need to improve (see also chapter 5.1).

This paragraph describes strategies which counteract school refusal and poor behaviour. You will certainly know some of them from your everyday school life and they are particularly important for pupils at risk. Top of the list is the existence of a whole school culture, making sure that everybody at school knows and supports the school’s values, rules and attitudes (see also chapter 2.1). If you don’t have such a culture one way to promote one is to establish a working group with pupil representatives whose task it is to work on school culture and ethos development. Initial suggestions can then be thoroughly discussed and eventually after much negotiation and bargaining with each other a clear understanding of what is meant by the school’s culture and long term ‘Mission Statement’ should emerge. Once clearly identified and understood it is easier to put into practise.

An important factor influencing the school culture is the internal and the external openness of the school. What that means can be illustrated by asking and answering the following questions:

• How much communication is there between colleagues and between staff and the Headteacher / Senior School Management?
• Do the teachers visit colleagues in other classes to learn from the good practise examples of others?
• Are there occasions to leave the door of your class room or the staff room open?
• How many community partners does the school have? (e.g. links with local companies, community groups etc.)
• How good are your lines of communication with parents?
• Do parents support what you are doing if there are problems?
• Do you have regular parent teacher meeting if truancy occurs? If yes: How supportive are the parents? What can you do to improve parental participation?
• Do parents or grandparents have the opportunity to make suggestions which the school follows up – e.g. offering working groups with parents in similar situations or taking part actively or passively in other ways e.g. watching how their children behave in lessons?

Another tool is the design of school as a “place to live”. Supporting the pupil’s emotional attachment at school, for example by celebrating birthdays together or by organising opportunities to recognise and reward good behaviour re-enforce the desire to be in school. Lohmann. (cited by Thimm. 1998, pp. 87ff.) identified more ideas for the organisation of the daily school life.

School culture can be positively affected by giving support and encouragement to both pupils and teachers. Because pupils at risk often have shortfalls in several areas, their weaknesses should be assessed and addressed as well as encouraging their strengths. It is helpful here to use the methods and instruments described in Module 4. It is also extremely important to create enough occasions for weaker pupils to feel successful. Offer them occasions to display their talents for example in sports, music, or theatre working groups. Also, teachers as well as pupils should be offered method training to improve their team and communication skills. The training can help to learn and embed working, moderation and presentation techniques as well. Also, internal and/or external mentoring should be easily accessible for teachers as well as for pupils (see also chapter 5.1).

A documentation system for the registration of absenteeism (authorised or unauthorised) is essential in order to guarantee that absence is being recognised immediately. It is useful to record lateness as well and to investigate if the pupil is absent and/or late in specific lessons or on the same day each week. If a pupil was absent you should control his presence actively and ensure that your colleagues are doing this as well. Plasse (2004) proposes an absenteeism documentation form. Also make sure that all pupils and their parents know the school rules and when they have to give a reason for absenteeism (see also chapter 2.1).

However, authorised absenteeism can also be a problem as well and all types of absence must be monitored and recorded.

If you discover that a pupil was absent without an excuse, you should discuss this with your colleagues and follow school procedures. If you are not the class teacher/tutor talk to him and tell him about the absenteeism. Try to find a colleague who has a good relationship with the pupil and is a suitable mentor for him/her. The exchange with a colleague can serve to give you support and to find cooperative strategies (see also chapter 5.1 and Module 5).

Fertsch-Röver-Berger (2006, p.267) has the following ideas on how such an exchange can take place:

• “Development of team-structures (for example building age groups);
• cooperation with drug counselling teachers;
• cooperation with native speakers;
• cooperation with school social workers (if existing) and
• cooperation with special schools teachers for small or integration classes (if existing)”.

All pupils at your school have to know exactly what happens if they offend against the school attendance rules. They have to learn to that their behaviour has consequences them as an individual and possibly for their parents as well.

It is crucial that the headteacher addresses the subject school truancy openly in order to let unauthorised absence attract attention and action on the first occasion it occurs. This can mean that he/she supports the communication between colleagues and encourages them to talk about difficulties with pupils´ attendance in their class without fear of criticism. Furthermore, it is important for pupils as well as for teachers and legal guardians to know the procedure in case of truancy. Therefore a clear published policy is very helpful. Temme (2002), cited by Plasse (2004, p. 78), pleads for the development of a handbook: “In a school’s handbook of truancy all parts of the subject will be addressed. They will be learned step by step by the teaching staff and their experiences should be recorded.”

In order to clarify systems and procedures for handling school absenteeism, a staff In Service Training day can be used to discuss the current situation, the overall concept for your school and the agreed rules and their implementation. Plasse (2004) proposes some methods. It is important to recognize that the development of an overall concept needs time.

A written or computerised attendance registration system updated at least daily or if possible at each lesson, by all teachers helps to gather and produce meaningful data which identify students causing concern and where action is needed.

Good lines of communication between parents and school are another crucial protective factor against premature school dropout.

If potential school drop-outs are taking part in a class they can often disturb lessons and teachers may have less trouble when these students are not present. This can lead to teachers preferring them not to be present and taking the ‘easy route’ of excluding them from individual lessons. It is therefore essential for the Headteacher to support and encourage the work of teachers who are engaged in trying to keep pupils at risk of dropping out in school. This can be done by providing time and financial resources as well as information about opportunities for further training on this subject.

According to Plasse (2004, page 97), the following guidelines can be useful for a school. They are proposals and can be used as orientation. Of course the proceeding will vary depending on the school. An important point is that your school comes to a decision about the proceeding and that everybody agrees upon it.

1. “Pupils’ first absenteeism without excuse: Find the appropriate person for the pupil by talking to the colleagues. When the pupil returns to the class reinforce his presence and desired behaviour.
2. If the pupil is absent again: Invite the parents to a meeting by a letter (see also chapter 3.4). The pupil should be informed in advance that this will happen. You must decide if the pupil should take part in the meeting or not. No matter what you decide you should give the pupil information about opportunities to receive support.
3. The meeting with parents/pupils: Find common ground and agree strategies to ensure that the pupil will come back to school (see also chapter 4).
4. Second absence: Send one further meeting invitation if the pupil continues to play truant or the parents do not show up at the proposed meeting. Suggest action by the youth welfare office or truancy officer. At this stage seek parental agreement to this suggestion.
5. Third absence: If the pupil still does not return to school within a time frame set by the head master it has to be decided if the school contacts the youth welfare office / truancy officer without parental support. In a third letter the parents are informed about this decision.

Early networking is important. Therefore you can also read modul 5.

In case of unauthorised absence prompt and strong action is necessary for the prevention of premature school dropout. Plasse (2004) thinks that a telephone call to the parents is appropriate on the first day of absenteeism without an excuse or after three lessons missed without an excuse. But before that you have to clarify who should make the contact with the pupil and his parents. Thimm (2008) lists the following persons as potential contacts: class teacher, special subject teacher, head master, school counsellor, youth help worker, school social worker, school psychologist. Depending on the reason for absence several different people may be involved and it is important to have someone who is coordinating, “keeping the thread” and has overall responsibility. This key person could be you. The next step would be to bring together all the information that can help to find out the reasons for absenteeism.

There are different causes for school refusal. Plasse (2004, pp.27ff) distinguishes three forms:

1. “Truancy: This is not an anxiety disorder and can be punished in the same way as for breaking any school rule.
2. School anxiety: The cause for this is fear either of something within school or on the way to school. Pupils can be afraid of the demanded performance, classmates, or teachers or even just the school environment.
3. Separation anxiety / school phobia: The cause for this fear is to something beyond school e.g. children are afraid that something could happen to their parents when they are separated. They often experience physical discomfort without medical symptoms.”

You should call in a school psychologist or refer the pupil to a clinical psychologist as soon as you suspect an ‘anxiety’ problem behind the school refusal (see also chapter 5.3 and Module 5).

Under a systemic point of view, absenteeism is not to be seen as the problem of one single individual. All parts of the system contribute their part to the occurrence and mastering of such a problem. Therefore, on the basis of the documentation about the endurance of the failed lessons, the following subsystems should be considered:

• pupil;
• parents;
• colleagues;
• other relevant persons belonging to the system (grand parents, peers, etc.).

One further pivotal aspect is the detection of the strengths and weaknesses of the pupil. You can find more information about this in Module 4. In order to support the pupil individually, it is necessary to be clear about the pupils’ strengths and weaknesses, abilities and passions. In the brochure “Winning them back! Dealing with truancy – a guideline for teachers” (Sächsisches Staatsministerium für Kultus, 2008) you will find documentation sheets for the achievement in individual subjects, learning behaviour and social competences:

assessing achievement
assessing learning behaviour and social competences

When you have gathered all the information you should try to find out what the pupil feels are ‘good experiences’ which happen when he/she stays away from school. You should then try to see matters from the viewpoint of the student: “How can I make the ‘good experiences’ in school outweigh the ‘good experiences’ outside school and ensure that he/she comes to the lessons regularly again?”

The word “communication” derives from the latin “communicare”, which means to share, to inform, to attend, to do together, to band together. In order that everybody of the system school can inform the others about his own reality, it needs communication. Often the process of communication is disturbed or there are misunderstandings. The following theories and tools can help you to recognize these “traps”, to avoid them and to resolve them.

1. The sender receiver model by Schulz von Thun (2004)
According to Schulz von Thun (2004) the process of communication contains three essential elements:

1. The sender: He starts the communication by encoding his message.
2. The message is a verbal or non verbal expression which the sender sends to the receiver.
3. The receiver gets and decodes the message. If the receiver answers the sender this is called feedback (see also chapter 3.2).

The four sides of a message
Each message contains four aspects:

1. Neutral message content: The information the sender wants to convey.
2. Appeal to the receiver: What the sender wants to provoke in the recipient.
3. Interpersonal relationship: What the sender thinks of the recipient, what is his view of the relationship between both of them and how he wants to address him.
4. Self revelation: What the sender tells about himself.

Receiving with four ears
The receiver himself can hear with four ears:

1. Information ear: What is the content of the message?
2. Appeal ear: What shall I do, think, feel due to his message?
3. Relationship ear: How is he talking to me? What does he think/feel about me / about the relation between us?
4. Self revelation ear: What kind of person is he? What is going on with him? What is he telling me about himself by his message?

It depends on the recipient with which ear he is decoding the message. It is important to know that the “truth” of a message can only be decided upon by the recipient and the sender. For detailed information see Schulz von Thun (2004).

Plasse (2004, p.55) makes clear that absenteeism can be understood as a message from the pupil and points out the following example to demonstrate the four sides in the context of school absenteeism:

Four sides of school absentism

2. Transactional Analysis (TA) from Berne (1961)
With the help of the transactional analysis you can analyse communication situations and decide how you can adapt to your conversation partner according to the situation.

Miller (2002) explains the theory as follows: “According to Eric Berne, the founder of the TA, every human personality acts out of three ego states, the Child Ego (C), the Adult Ego (A) and the Parent Ego (P). From early childhood on, these egos register certain events and are a kind of storage, whereas every ego state consists of feelings, thoughts and behaviours.

• Parent Ego: feelings, thoughts and behaviours undertaken by parents or parents´ representation: I should, I must, I may not...
• Adult Ego: feelings, thoughts and behaviours are a realistic response to the “here and now”: that is how it is; I am acting in this specific manner.
• Child Ego: feelings, thoughts and behaviours rising from own impulses and being reactivated: I wish, I would like to have, it would be so nice if...

Every human being is acting according to these three ego states depending on the nature of the conversation - for example by admonishing, moralizing, or being concerned (P), by pointing out and justifying facts (A) or by putting oneself in states experienced as a child (C). (...)” (pp. 28ff).

The transaction is that the communication partners can adapt to different ego states. For example, someone from P talks to a partner from C and so on.

For a professional communication situation the A-A state is desirable.

Miller (2002, p.31) lists four advantages of this model:

1. The perception of our three ego states;
2. The perception of the conversation partner’s ego state;
3. Staying longer in an appropriate Adult Ego state within professional communication situations;
4. Having the possibility to act from all three ego states.”

Based on this model you can analyse your professional conversations at school. A conversation with the parents of a truant can be stressful sometimes because you may have to point out the student’s misbehaviour and this can lead to resistance and a negative reaction from the parents. The theory can help you to respond constructively to their feedback and to act from the Adult Ego state.

You can exercise communication. Best practise is to try and to execute the theories and tools. Enjoy it!

1. Active listening
Active listening is a method you can use for example in a counselling situation with a pupil at risk. The aim of active listening is to help the communication partner to talk about what really affects and concerns them. With such a conversation strategy you create a relationship which is very important for teenagers with behaviour disorders since they are often not well integrated socially. The rules for active listening are:

1. Receiving with four ears: Focus on the self revelation ear and the relationship ear (see chapter 3.1). Thus, you will get useful information about your communication partner and his/her thoughts and feelings.
2. Give your communication partner your full and best attention: That includes listening for verbal signs such as “ah, mmm, interesting”, leading him/her to keep on talking. Just as important are eye contact, nonverbal signs of attention (nodding or shaking head, frowning, body language and so on) and as well keeping silent in some cases. After all, a conversation break can mean that your partner is thinking something over.
3. Paraphrasing: You sum up what you have understood in your own words without adding something, commenting, or evaluating. Thus, your communication partner can check if you understood correctly what he/she wanted to say.
4. Emotion deepening questions: Try to draw out the feelings of your communication partner, so that he/she gets the opportunity to become clear about them himself/herself.
5. Vocalise feelings of your communication partner. Speak out loud what you think his/her feelings are and ask if you are right. If he/she corrects you, accept this correction unconditionally. This helps him/her become sensitive towards his/her feelings and to accept them.

For practicing these techniques you can use active listening in a conversation with a friend. You can learn it only by continuous practicing.

2. I-messages
In the interaction with a truant pupil it often happens that you as a teacher have to confront him/her with breaking a rule. With I-messages you can criticise someone’s behaviour without attacking them as a person. Plasse (2004, p. 46 f.) describes I-messages as follows: “An I-message consists of an emotional part and an information part: In an I-message the person’s own feelings are expressed. In the objective information part of the message it is communicated how these feelings were provoked, for example: “I am disappointed that you have not kept your promise!” You cannot argue about feelings, they exist and need to be taken seriously.

The levels of an I-message:

1. Event
   Neutral statement of a fact: “You were absent from class.” – instead of “You are not interested in coming to school at all.”
2. Reaction
   Presentation of the subjective emotional experience: It is better to say “I am annoyed.” instead of “You are always annoying everybody.” Furthermore, it is useful to describe it with regard to the relation:”I think it is a pity, because I would like to get along with you.”
3. Own wishes / positive outlook
   An outlook of a potential improvement without demands: “I would like to reach an agreement with you how to catch up your knowledge gaps. Maybe then you would like coming to class again more” – instead of the instruction:”Stick to the school rules!”

In the following link you will find a worksheet to exercise I-messages:
I_messages

3. Giving and receiving feedback
As a teacher you often have to give a pupil feedback about his behaviour. For a pupil at risk it is particularly important to give constructive feedback that encourages him to get along with every day school life. At the same time you have to accept feedback yourself, for example in a conversation with parents or colleagues or your superior.

• Use feedback if you want to enhance a positive behaviour.
• Someone always has the choice to accept or to refuse feedback.

Giving feedback:

• Give feedback immediately after the situation it refers to.
• Always try to say something positive in the beginning, then something negative and try to end with something positive again.
• Make sure to tackle behaviour that can be modified and avoid judgements about the receiver’s personality.
• Be firm and present your subjective impression without generalizing.

Receiving feedback:

• Listen carefully and ask only if you didn’t understand something.
• Don’t attempt to justify yourself or your actions.
• Accept feedback as a subjective view that gives you the chance to learn something about how you come across to other people.
• Say thank you for the feedback.

4. Non verbal communication
In addition to what we say, we are telling others a lot with body language. Discrepancies between verbal and non verbal signals can lead to uncertainty in the communication partner. Non verbal signs are mimic, gesture and posture. In dealing with truants it can happen that heavy emotions arise that you do not express verbally but your conversation partner will recognise it on the non verbal level.

Here an example from daily life at school:
Mr Klein has ordered a pupil to complete missed subject matter. He notices that the pupil has not carried out the given task. He is angry but wants to be a good educator and asks him: “What made it difficult for you to fulfil this task?” The pupil is confused since he hears the concerned question but senses the anger. Therefore, it would be better to express the feelings: “We had an agreement and you did not stick to it. That makes me angry. Do you have an idea how we can come to a solution?” The teacher is clear, the pupil can better react to what is being said and conveyed and a solution can be found more easily (according to v. Kanitz, 2006, p. 88 f.)

5. Questioning techniques
There are various questioning techniques that can help you to get information and clarity about the true reasons for truancy. You can use them to find out more about the fears, motives and desires of your conversation partner. If you combine them with active listening (see 3.2.1) you make sure you get as much information as possible. By posing a question you can motivate a pupil (“What would you do if you were in my shoes?”) or hurt him (“Will you never understand it?”).

V. Kanitz (2006) describes various types of questions. Because of their special value the difference between open and closed questions needs to be mentioned here. Closed questions can only be answered by “yes” or “no”. This is useful to cut off someone who speaks too much, to come back to a subject, or to provoke a decision. Open questions begin with when, where, why, how, or what. In answering these questions the conversation partner can choose for him/herself what and how much he wants to reveal. Open questions can help you to find out something about the needs, motives and goals of your counterpart.

6. Meta communication
Meta communication is a conversation about a conversation. With the help of meta communication you can steer conversations, leave the “battlefield” of the communication and talk with your partner about the conversation by climbing the “commander hill”. You can obtain more information about meta communication in v. Kanitz (2006) or Schulz v. Thun (2004).

In order to start the conversation with a clear point of view you need to consider your attitudes towards the pupil in advance. Furthermore, you should think over your expectations and decide from them the goal areas you want to agree with the pupil (see also chapter 4.3). You should also clarify your expectations towards the parents, what you want to tell them about their child, or if you need some further information. Additionally you should ask yourself what you are willing to do so that the goals can be achieved. Plasse (2004) gathered methods that help you to strengthen your position: 2_3_2_attitudes
Plasse also points out that it is important to understand your own feelings regarding the conversation: Are you afraid of a confrontation or angry at the pupil or his parents? By becoming conscious of your feelings you will be able to talk about them openly and will not be “overwhelmed” by them. If you want to talk about a pupil’s disturbing behaviour you will find reflection guidelines in the brochure “Winning them back! Dealing with truancy – a guideline for teachers” (Sächsisches Staatsministerium für Kultus, 2008, p. 40). When you have clarified your position you can think about concrete questions for the pupil and his parents. Wolter (cited by Thimm, 1998, p. 94) gives an overview of some questions you might want to ask the pupil:

In another publication Thimm II (08_Thimm II)(2008, p. 11) adds further questions:

Plasse (2004, p. 33f.) lists the following questions for a first conversation with pupils and parents.
2_3_2_pupil
2_3_2_parents

The brochure “Winning them back! Dealing with truancy – a guideline for teachers” (Sächsisches Staatsministerium für Kultus, 2008, p. 19) mentions the following questions that have to be answered within a conversation with pupils and parents.

Because the start of your conversation with the parents of a truanting pupil can be difficult, it is even more important that a comfortable atmosphere is created. Set the meeting date and time so that you can talk about all important points without time or venue pressure. The meeting should take place in a room where you can talk without being disturbed by others. Sitting face to face without a barrier (like a desk) is advantageous and can help set the right tone for the meeting.

Decide if it is better to invite the parents by a letter or a telephone call. A telephone call makes a first clarification possible and reduces insecurities.

According to Plasse (2004, p. 52) the elements of an invitation are:

• content and goal of the conversation;
• participants;
• beginning and foreseen end of the conversation;
• location.

From the following link you can download invitations to a meeting with parents in different languages.

Many truants come from an immigrant background. Therefore it is important to deal with the cross-culture subject in your class, with your colleagues and at parent-teacher-conferences. You can use teaching units, In Service Training or project days to support the intercultural communication in your class and at school in general. Contents can e.g. be the differences between the cultures and the need to respect those differences on one hand, and to work out common norms and values on the other hand. In preparation for a conversation with parents from a different culture you should think about potential specialties in interacting with them (e.g. who do you invite, are there areas to be avoided or certain formalities to consider etc.). If you don’t have a common language with the parents, you can call in an interpreter. In the following link you will find a check list from the regional teacher training institute and school development in Hamburg which can support you to do cross-culture work with parents.

It can be very useful to know the phases of a good and constructive conversation. According to Thimm (2008, p. 10) and Benien (2007, pp. 46ff.) there are six phases of a cooperative conversation:

1. Preparation: Based on the four sides of a message by Schulz von Thun (see also chapter 3.1) you can ask yourself the following questions:
   Information side: “What do I want to tell my conversation partner?”
   Self revealing side: “What do I want to tell my conversation partner about myself?”
   Relationship side: “How do I want to talk to my conversation partner? How do I see our relationship? How do I want to deal with him/her?”
   Appealing side: “What do I want my conversation partner to do? What is the aim of my conversation?”
2. Starting a conversation: It is important to make a good start. Avoid deviation from the actual subject (weather, holidays, family) but still try to create a good atmosphere – for example: “Although the reason for our meeting is not very pleasant, I am glad that we have the opportunity to talk about it today.”
3. Deepening the conversation / understanding the problem: Of great value for coming to a common solution is to try to understand the point of view of your conversation partner. In this phase active listening (see also chapter 3.2) can help to sense the feelings of your counterpart and to contribute to a solution. For example: A pupil who feels understood by you can develop more trust, respect and hope than a pupil who has the feeling that you want to impose a solution on him/her. During this phase you should also communicate your point of view and your feelings. This way, a comprehensive understanding of the problem can be reached in everyone involved.
4. Looking for solutions: Now you can suggest the alternative solutions you have already worked out during the preparation phase (see also chapter 3.3). Balance the pros and cons together with the pupil and the parents.
5. Create an action plan: What should the desired behaviour look like? What could help the pupil to achieve the intended behaviour? What could cause problems? Who and what can support the pupil to overcome these problems? Discuss all these aspects openly with the pupil and the parents.
6. Finishing the conversation: Have a short evaluation, thank them for coming, end with a ritual (e.g. closing a contract, see also chapter 4.3), arrange a control meeting.

One reason for school absenteeism can be an unsolved conflict with class mates or teachers. Therefore, an appropriate conflict management strategy is one important step towards the prevention of early school leaving.

Berner (2005) defines a conflict as follows: “A conflict exists when needs, interests, expectancies, intentions and aims are – at least in their present form – incompatible”.

Glasl (1992) describes nine steps to conflict escalation. This model helps to understand conflicts better and find solution strategies

According to this approach it is helpful to analyse the conflict dynamics and to realise which conflict level you have reached in order to decide about an intern or extern intervention.

Conflict management behaviour patterns
Lippmann (2004, p. 48) lists five possibilities to deal with a conflict:

• flight (trying to avoid or repress a conflict);
• death feigning (doing nothing and hoping for a miracle);
• fight (trying to weaken or beat the opponent);
• submission (giving in, disclaiming own interests);
• delegation (conflict solution by a third party);
• compromise (everybody gives in a little bit);
• negotiating an agreement (needing much time and energy, but giving the best chances of a long term solution).

According to Lippmann (2004), the first four patterns can lead to a short term elimination of the conflict at best but not to a long term solution. Even more probable is an escalation of the conflict often leading to the need to involve a third party in the conflict solution (see Glasl, 1992).

Conflict conversations
Miller (2002, pp. 23 ff.) points out the following approaches to analyse conflicts and find appropriate solutions:

1. Four sides of a message by Schulz von Thun (see also chapter 3.1)
2. Transactional Analysis by Berne (see also chapter 3.1)
3. The four steps of understanding:

In case of verbal aggression, this approach can help you to understand the problem and the helplessness of your counterpart and not to take it personally. Considered are four central aspects:

• accusation, vituperation, aggression;
• feelings of anger, fury, hatred, being hurt;
• feeling insecure, helpless;
• existential problem / misery.

2_4_2_4_steps

Cooperative Group Counselling as conflict management: Colleague Supervision according to Mutzeck (2005)
A further possibility for conflict management is the ‘Colleague Supervision’ suggested by Mutzeck (2005), based on problem solving strategies that are able to overcome the discrepancy between current state and desired state. Mutzeck suggests nine counselling steps that are described below. If you are interested in this method you should read Mutzeck (2005) because it can be used for working both with pupils and parents as well. Thus, you will be able to provide advice for others on their problems or you can receive advice to help with your own conflicts.

1st Counselling step:
Introduction of cooperative counselling (determination of location and time; providing information about aims and limitations of the method)
2nd Counselling step:
Description of the problem, reconstruction of your own point of view (feelings, thoughts, sense and meaning of actions) and investigation of resources
3rd Counselling step:
Change of perspectives
4th Counselling step:
Analysis of the problem and focussing the key issue
5th Counselling step:
Deduction and development of a goal
6th Counselling step:
Finding a solution and working out ways to achieve it
7th Counselling step:
Evaluation of the different alternative routes and decision on the one most likely to succeed
8th Counselling step:
Planning and preparing actions, identifying supporting measures and planning for potential difficulties
9th Counselling step:
Monitoring and reviewing the counselling session (Mutzeck, 2005, pp. 104ff.)

Mutzeck furthermore describes four phases of the establishment of a Colleague Supervision Group:

1. Forming a group (determining participants and basic conditions)
2. Training: Learning to use the method
3. Colleague Supervision with an external counsellor (seven supervision sessions)
4. Internal Colleague Supervision (participants carry out the sessions autonomously and on their own responsibility)

Other forms of conflict management
Göppel (2007) describes three different forms of conflict management at school. Of particular interest here is the Responsible Thinking Process“ (RTP) by Edward E. Ford (2004). This method works with juveniles who are entangled in a conflict where mere empathy is not helpful, using confrontation with the own behaviour. The “administrator”, a person who is specially trained for dealing with such conflicts, continuously confronts the juvenile with the agreed rules, the consequences of breaking the rules and with being responsible for his/her own behaviour. He does that until the pupil explicitly and seriously expresses the intention to improve.

In dealing with truants who are aggressive, conflicts can arise that are hard to solve in school. One possibility is to place them on special projects or programmes (see chapter 5.5; see also Module 5). In the brochure “Promoting school tired teenagers. New ways to generate cooperation between youth welfare and schools in the school tiredness projects in North Rhine-Westphalia” (DJI, 2004) you will find an overview of projects for school tired pupils.

Further projects are described in some of the 30 German database documents on the School Inclusion homepage (http://schoolinclusion.pixel-online.org). See also the databases of the other project partners

Exposure to Bullying
Bullying either individually or by groups can be a reason for a pupil staying away from school. In the brochure “Winning them back! Dealing with truancy – a guideline for teachers” (Sächsisches Staatsministerium für Kultus, 2008, p. 27) the following forms of bullying are listed:

• “making fun of another person’s impairments;
• teasing, insulting, affronting;
• threatening, blackmailing, humiliating, torturing;
• making malicious accusations, disseminating lies;
• consciously giving incorrect information;
• isolating and excluding from the group.”

On page 56 the Farsta method is being described as an anti mobbing method. This method provides helpful suggestions on how you can take action against bullying. It describes intervention steps and interviews with offenders. From the following link it possible to download a pdf document where the Farsta method is described.

Plasse (2004) proposes the following possibilities in dealing with bullying (p. 92):

Deepening literature with regard to the subject „conflict“

• Hatto (2003) “Promoting class climate”: This handbook describes methods of dealing with conflicts and mediation and also contains one chapter on integration.
• Jefferys-Duden (2002) „Conflict management and mediation“: This is a program containing different teaching units on the subject. Its specialty is that ready-made working materials are provided.

At the end of a conversation it is important, that you write down the aims, the strategies to reach them and the consequences of achievement or failure. If you have to “punish” the pupil, it must be clear that the chosen sanctions serve to help the pupil to recognise that he/she has to bear the consequences of the unacceptable behaviour. The sanctions should be proportionate and fair and not a sign of your power or control. Therefore you need to reach a common agreement on them. Appropriate sanctions could be to rework the missed lessons in the afternoon, a daily visit of the headmaster or a member of the school senior management team who re-enforces the punctuality of the pupil and the actions being taken. Trying to draw up a contract and have it signed up by everybody has proved to be a successful strategy. In the following links you will find examples for a contract between teacher and pupil and between teacher and parents:
2_4_3_pupil
2_4_3_parents

Students at risk may have experienced a perceived lack of interest in their person or presence. Showing interest if they reached aims or if they stick to a bargain can be an important experience for them. It is fundamental that you reward the pupil if he reaches a goal. This will increase motivation for the pupil to go to school regularly.

In the following link you will find a documentation sheet which helps you to monitor the implementation of agreements and consequences:.
2_4_3_monitoring

Once the conversation is finished you should decide whether you achieved all planned goals or if there is a need for renegotiation. The brochure “Winning them back! Dealing with truancy – a guideline for teachers” (Sächsisches Staatsministerium für Kultus, 2008) offers evaluation sheets regarding academic achievement, learning behaviour, and soft skills as well as for the learning agreements. They can help you to reflect which measures are promoting or impeding achievement of goals.
2_5_1_Assessment Sheet for the support of achievement
2_5_1_Assess Sheet support learning behav&social compet
2_5_1_Evaluation Sheet for the education agreement

After the conversation you should talk about it – especially if one or more of the partners was not willing to cooperate or if the conversation was conflict-ridden. By seeking assistance you actively prevent the development of stress and burnout. Support could be provided by someone from the teachers’ union, faculty colleagues or of course also your partner or a friend.

Miller (1993; cited by Thimm, 1998, p. 105) collected questions that help you as a teacher to assess opportunities for potential stress relief:

• “How am I? (self-perception)
• How do others experience me? (openness for feedback)
• What is it that I want? (clarity)
• What can I do within my frame of responsibility? (decision and commitment)
• What am I entitled to? Where are my limitations? (setting limits)
• How can I avoid some of the strains?
• What do I want to free myself from? (letting lose)
• What am I in for? (anticipation)
• Where do I start? What is my personal first step? (decision and priorities)
• Who could participate? (cooperation)
• What gives me peace and power? (oases, resources)”

Don’t hesitate to seek professional assistance (e.g. counselling, coaching, therapy) if you experience difficulties during the implementation (see also Module 5). Another possibility to provide support and reduction of stress is to take part in Colleague Supervision e.g. according to Mutzeck (2005) (see also chapter 4.2).

In order to design a successful comeback situation and thereby induce the beginning of a permanent attendance, it is highly important to prepare the classmates on how to deal with the truant pupil who comes back to school. You should consider the group dynamics and the moral level in your class be aware of potential negative experiences for the comeback pupil. If the truant is a bullying victim, the special focus on him may lead to a recurrence of bullying.

For example, you could conduct a lesson on truancy and highlight how communication and behavior patterns between the classmates might affect the truancy of a pupil. (see also chapter 1.1 and module 1)

A positive experience on the first day at school might counter the pupil’s previous negative experiences. You can pick a reliable pupil who becomes a buddy for the pupil at risk. This buddy is supposed to support the pupil at risk regarding the regular attendance on the one hand and with reworking the lessons missed on the other. The following link encloses a German document.
2_5_2_buddy

A pleasant and cooperative class is the foundation needed to counteract against negative school experiences and to find supporting schoolmates (see also chapter 1.2).

Your own behaviour is pivotal within this process. Thimm (1998, p. 96) comments this as follows: “A first step to foster the attendance of a pupil in class is to take his statements seriously and to convey the acceptance of himself as a person. Therefore interrogations, cynical remarks or other types of exposure must be avoided. Quite the contrary: It has to be communicated to the pupil how important he is for the class and the importance of what he has missed, probably even that the teacher was worried about him/her…” Plasse (2004) suggests rehearsing the design and setting of the comeback situation in a role play with your colleagues.

There are always limitations in the work with truants. You cannot solve all the problems of your fosterlings. But knowing who you can turn to is an important step in dealing with complex problems professionally. If it turns out that the cause of the truancy is an anxiety disorder or a phobia you should in any case call in a school/clinical psychologist or a psychotherapist. This always has to happen in agreement with the parents.

Literature indicates over and over that the cooperation with social workers within and beyond school is an important factor in overcoming truancy. Most of the time, the pupils at risk are involved in difficulties in many ways, e.g. familial, existential, or social, that all affect their performance in school negatively. Referral to projects specialised on nurturing pupils and compensating their shortcomings can disburden you in your teaching (see also chapter 4.2). The following link encloses a German document.
2_5_3_project

The public order office can be another cooperation partner. Plasse (2004) indicates that you should inquire about specific forms to report regulatory offense at your public order office. Usually you send at least two warnings to the parents before you contact the public order office.

Further cooperation partners are the youth welfare office or advice centres that can be helpful regarding educational difficulties. The police also functions as cooperation partner.

It is very important that the different professions get to know each other and network in order to enable a fast dialogue as well as early and effective action in fighting early school leaving.
2_5_3_literature